From Blogger:
Electrical Engineering Solutions by
S. Emmanuel E.
The Roles of
Electrical Engineers to the Society.
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Electrical Engineers
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All those that believe in telekinesis..........raise my hand
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Electrical engineers: Electrical engineering covers a wide spectrum of civilian and military careers. Electrical engineers can generally place themselves in one of the following categories.
Electrical engineers are
expected to be able to calculate mathematically every element within their
particular field. Unlike many other types of engineer, electrical engineers
are trained to a minimum of a "higher education" grade. That is to
say that every electrical engineer is a graduate. Let me elaborate on this
and take a deeper look at the areas covered above.
These electrical
engineers have duties ranging from assessing the maximum current demand of a
new high rise block to calculating harmonics within switch mode power
supplies. Typically these electrical engineers work on behalf of a
contracting company or are "in house" in larger buildings.
The
duties of these electrical engineers are possibly the most diverse of all.
Not only do they have to design and calculate a prospective installation,
they may well have to use software to design it, like autocad et cetera, work
out the costings, schedule delivery dates for equipment and accommodate rapid
changes in their designs as requested by the clients and other contractors.
In house electrical
engineers are based in a high rise or similar building complex and are
available throughout the day for consultation and emergency situations.
Depending on the style and purpose of the building, the in house electrical
engineer will have a number of electricians to undertake the daily tasks.
Electrical engineers
within this field are typically experts in a particular field but that is by
no means the only type. For example he may be a lighting specialist and work
solely in the street and space lighting field. Another example is an
electrical engineer that oversees public works projects, such as shopping
centres, cinemas and theatres et cetera.
Although many of these
electrical engineers are employed directly by the public utilities, a growing
number are contractors. Public works electrical engineers frequently find
themselves in a consultation role whereby they mediate between works
contractors and the higher echelons of government bodies.
electrical engineers that
work in educational institutes are by genre the allrounders that are experts
in only the direct subjects relating to electrical engineering. For example
an electrical engineer in the building and construction trade will readily
know the difference between a high quality power transformer and a low
quality one that may just be poorly constructed and yet have an identical
specification. As you can see this clearly falls outside the realms of
electrical engineering and pertains perhaps more to manufacturing
engineering.
These electrical
engineers are, however, expected to be exceptionally resourceful and be of a
standard that is at the cutting edge of technology.
electrical engineers
within the confines of the military are an entirely different kind of
engineer to the rest. They are expected to be able to deal with emergency and
disaster situations at any time of the day. These electrical engineers have
to be considerably resourceful in a different way to the educational
electrical engineer. Frequently they find themselves in situations where
acquisition resources are poor and have to overcome the challenge with their
mind and knowledge.
The greatest demand for
military electrical engineers is possibly the ability to construct makeshift
or temporary installations without compromising safety. This is a
generalisation and it should be noted that much military engineering is
restricted information and not publishable on this webpage.
Design house electrical
engineers cover a wide range of responsibilities. Duties can be as diverse as
designing hydro-electric power generators to programming software for
electrical engineering uses, such as cable sizing programs. These electrical
engineers are almost all multi skilled engineers and noted for their
flexibility within accompanying engineering environments.
This article was written
by makrobicz associate member of the institution of electrical engineers,
mathematician for:
A-K strategic
business solutions - web design
My work can be seen at http://engineers-international.com , http://www.ids.com.au/solutions/ , http://racingcoloursclub.com/ , http://akstrategic.com/
I can be reached direct
via email at
Other excerpts from these
articles can be viewed at
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Web
Electrical engineering
Electrical engineers design complex
power systems...
...and electronic circuits.
Electrical
engineering is a field of engineering
that generally deals with the study and application of electricity,
electronics, and electromagnetism. This field first became an identifiable occupation in the
latter half of the 19th century after commercialization of the electric telegraph,
the telephone, and electric power
distribution and use. It now covers a wide range of subfields including electronics,
digital computers, power engineering, telecommunications, control systems,
RF engineering, and signal processing.
Electrical
engineering may include electronic engineering. Where a distinction is made, usually outside of the United
States, electrical engineering is considered to deal with the problems
associated with systems such as electric
power transmission and electrical machines, whereas electronic engineering deals with the study of
electronic systems including computers,
communication systems, integrated circuits, and radar.[1]
From a different point-of-view,
electrical engineers are usually concerned with using electricity to transmit electric power,
while electronic engineers are concerned with using electricity to process
information. The subdisciplines can overlap, for example, in the growth of power electronics, and the study of behavior of large electrical grids under
the control of digital computers and electronics.
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Table of Contents
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History
Main article: History
of electrical engineering
Electricity
has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early 17th
century. The first electrical engineer was probably William
Gilbert who designed the versorium:
a device that detected the presence of statically charged objects. He was also
the first to draw a clear distinction between magnetism and static electricity
and is credited with establishing the term electricity.[2]
In 1775 Alessandro Volta's scientific experimentations devised the electrophorus,
a device that produced a static electric charge, and by 1800 Volta developed
the voltaic pile, a forerunner of the electric battery.[3]
19th
century
However, it was not until the 19th
century that research into the subject started to intensify. Notable
developments in this century include the work of Georg Ohm,
who in 1827 quantified the relationship between the electric current and potential difference in a conductor, Michael Faraday,
the discoverer of electromagnetic
induction in 1831, and James Clerk Maxwell, who in 1873 published a unified theory of electricity and magnetism
in his treatise Electricity and Magnetism.[4]
Beginning in the 1830s, efforts were
made to apply electricity to practical use in the telegraph.
By the end of the 19th century the world had been forever changed by the rapid
communication made possible by engineering development of land-lines, submarine
cables, and, from about 1890, wireless telegraphy.
Practical applications and advances
in such fields created an increasing need for standardized units of measure.
They led to the international standardization of the units volt, ampere, coulomb, ohm, farad, and henry. This was
achieved at an international conference in Chicago 1893.[5]
The publication of these standards formed the basis of future advances in
standardisation in various industries, and in many countries the definitions
were immediately recognised in relevant legislation.[6]
Picture of Thomas Edison
Thomas Edison built the world's first large-scale electrical supply
network.
During these years, the study of
electricity was largely considered to be a subfield of physics. It was
not until about 1885 that universities
and institutes
of technology such as Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT) and
Cornell University started to offer bachelor's degrees in electrical engineering. The Darmstadt
University of Technology founded
the first department of electrical engineering in the world in 1882. In that
same year, under Professor Charles Cross at MIT began offering the first option
of electrical engineering within its physics
department.[7]
In 1883, Darmstadt
University of Technology and
Cornell University introduced the world's first bachelor's degree courses of
study in electrical engineering, and in 1885 the University
College London founded the first chair of
electrical engineering in Great Britain.[8]
The University of Missouri established the first department of electrical engineering
in the United States in 1886.[9]
Several other schools soon followed suit, including Cornell and the Georgia
School of Technology in Atlanta, Georgia.
During these decades use of
electrical engineering increased dramatically. In 1882, Thomas Edison
switched on the world's first large-scale electric power network that provided
110 volts — direct current (DC) — to 59 customers on Manhattan Island in New York City.
In 1884, Sir
Charles Parsons invented the steam turbine.
Turbines now provide the mechanical power for about 80 percent of the electric
power in the world using a variety of heat sources.
The late 1880s saw a rivalry in
systems for electric power distribution with the introduction of alternating current (AC) systems, setting off what has been called the War of Currents.[10]
The method of AC won over DC for generation and power distribution because of
its superior technology, especially the use of transformers
to increase and decrease voltages (not possible with DC). The use of
high-voltage AC vastly extended the range of electric power distribution, and
the use of transfomers improved both the efficiency and the safety of electric
power distribution.
More
modern developments
During the development of radio, many scientists and inventors
contributed to radio technology and electronics. In his classic physics experiments of
1888, Heinrich Hertz transmitted radio waves
with a spark-gap transmitter, and detected them by using simple electrical devices. The
mathematical work of James Clerk Maxwell during the 1850s had shown the possibility of radio waves
but Hertz was the first to demonstrate their existence. In 1895, Nikola Tesla
was able to detect radio signals from his transmitter
in his laboratory in New York City
about 50 miles away in West Point, New York (about 80 kilometers).[11]
In 1897, Karl Ferdinand Braun introduced the cathode ray tube as part of an oscilloscope,
a crucial enabling technology for electronic television.[12]John Fleming invented the first radio tube, the diode, in 1904.
Two years later, Robert von Lieben and Lee De Forest
independently developed the amplifier tube, called the triode.[13]
In 1895, Guglielmo Marconi furthered the art of hertzian wireless methods. Early on,
he sent wireless signals over a distance of one and a half miles. In December
1901, he sent wireless waves that were not affected by the curvature of the
Earth. Marconi later transmitted the wireless signals across the Atlantic
between Poldhu, Cornwall, and St. John's, Newfoundland, a distance of 2,100
miles (3,400 km)Template:Convert/track/adj/.[14]
In 1920 Albert Hull developed the magnetron which would eventually lead to the development of the microwave oven
in 1946 by Percy Spencer.[15][16]
In 1934 the British military began to make strides toward radar (which
also uses the magnetron) under the direction of DrWimperis, culminating in the
operation of the first radar station at Bawdsey in August
1936.[17]
In 1941 KonradZuse
presented the Z3, the world's first fully functional
and programmable computer using electromechanical parts. In 1943 Tommy Flowers
designed and built the Colossus, the world's first fully functional, electronic, digital
and programmable computer.[18]
In 1946 the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) of John Presper Eckert and John Mauchly
followed, beginning the computing era. The arithmetic performance of these
machines allowed engineers to develop completely new technologies and achieve
new objectives, including the Apollo program
which culminated in landing astronauts on the Moon.[19]
A
complete breakthrough in electronics - solid-state transistors
The invention of the transistor
in late 1947 by William B. Shockley, John Bardeen,
and Walter Brattain of the Bell
Telephone Laboratories opened
the door for more compact devices and led to the development of the integrated circuit in 1958 by Jack Kilby
and independently in 1959 by Robert Noyce.[20]
Starting in 1968, Ted Hoff and a
team at the Intel Corporation invented the first commercial microprocessor,
which foreshadowed the personal computer. The Intel 4004
was a four-bit processor released in 1971, but in 1973 the Intel 8080,
an eight-bit processor, made the first personal computer, the Altair 8800,
possible.[21]
Education
Electrical engineers typically
possess an academic degree with a major in electrical engineering, electronics
engineering, or electrical and electronic
engineering. The same fundamental principles are taught in all programs,
though emphasis may vary according to title. The length of study for such a
degree is usually four or five years and the completed degree may be designated
as a Bachelor of Engineering, Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Technology, or Bachelor
of Applied Science depending on the university. The bachelor's degree generally includes units covering physics, mathematics,
computer science, project management, and a variety
of topics in electrical engineering.
Initially such topics cover most, if not all, of the subdisciplines of
electrical engineering. At some schools, the students can then choose to emphasize
one or more subdisciplines towards the end of their courses of study. At many
schools, electronic engineering is included as part of an electrical award,
sometimes explicitly, such as a Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical and
Electronic), but in others electrical and electronic engineering are both
considered to be sufficiently broad and complex that separate degrees are
offered.[22]
Some electrical engineers choose to
study for a postgraduate degree such as a Master of Engineering/Master of Science (M.Eng./M.Sc.), a Master of Engineering Management, a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in Engineering, an Engineering Doctorate (Eng.D.), or an Engineer's degree. The master's and engineer's degrees may consist of either research, coursework
or a mixture of the two. The Doctor of Philosophy and Engineering Doctorate
degrees consist of a significant research component and are often viewed as the
entry point to academia. In the United Kingdom and some other European countries,
Master of Engineering is often considered to be an undergraduate degree of
slightly longer duration than the Bachelor of Engineering rather than
postgraduate.[23]
Practicing
engineers
In most countries, a Bachelor's
degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional
certification and the degree program itself is
certified by a professional body. After completing a certified degree program the engineer
must satisfy a range of requirements (including work experience requirements)
before being certified. Once certified the engineer is designated the title of Professional Engineer (in the United States, Canada and South Africa ), Chartered Engineer or Incorporated Engineer (in India, Pakistan, the United Kingdom, Ireland and Zimbabwe), Chartered
Professional Engineer (in Australia and New Zealand) or European Engineer (in much of the European Union).
The advantages of certification vary
depending upon location. For example, in the United States and Canada
"only a licensed engineer may seal engineering work for public and private
clients".[24]
This requirement is enforced by state and provincial legislation such as Quebec's Engineers
Act.[25]
In other countries, no such legislation exists. Practically all certifying
bodies maintain a code of ethics
that they expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion.[26]
In this way these organizations play an important role in maintaining ethical
standards for the profession. Even in jurisdictions where certification has
little or no legal bearing on work, engineers are subject to contract law.
In cases where an engineer's work fails he or she may be subject to the tort of negligence
and, in extreme cases, the charge of criminal negligence. An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other
rules and regulations such as building codes
and legislation pertaining to environmental law.
Professional bodies of note for
electrical engineers include the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the Institution
of Engineering and Technology
(IET). The IEEE claims to produce 30% of the world's literature in electrical
engineering, has over 360,000 members worldwide and holds over 3,000
conferences annually.[27]
The IET publishes 21 journals, has a worldwide membership of over 150,000, and
claims to be the largest professional engineering society in Europe.[28][29]
Obsolescence of technical skills is a serious concern for electrical engineers.
Membership and participation in technical societies, regular reviews of
periodicals in the field and a habit of continued learning are therefore
essential to maintaining proficiency. MIET(Member of the Institution of
Engineering and Technology) is recognised in Europe as Electrical and computer
(technology) engineer.[30]
In Australia, Canada and the United
States electrical engineers make up around 0.25% of the labor force (see note). Outside
of Europe and North America, engineering graduates per-capita, and hence
probably electrical engineering graduates also, are most numerous in Taiwan,
Japan, and South Korea.[31]
Tools
and work
From the Global
Positioning System to electric power generation, electrical engineers have contributed to the development
of a wide range of technologies. They design, develop, test and supervise the
deployment of electrical systems and electronic devices. For example, they may
work on the design of telecommunication systems, the operation of electric power stations,
the lighting and wiring of buildings,
the design of household appliances or the electrical control of
industrial machinery.[32]
Satellite
communications is one of many projects an
electrical engineer might work on.
Fundamental to the discipline are
the sciences of physics and mathematics
as these help to obtain both a qualitative and quantitative
description of how such systems will work. Today most engineering
work involves the use of computers
and it is commonplace to use computer-aided design programs when designing electrical systems. Nevertheless,
the ability to sketch ideas is still invaluable for quickly communicating with
others.
Although most electrical engineers
will understand basic circuit theory
(that is the interactions of elements such as resistors,
capacitors,
diodes, transistors
and inductors in a circuit), the theories employed by engineers generally
depend upon the work they do. For example, quantum mechanics and solid state physics might be relevant to an engineer working on VLSI (the
design of integrated circuits), but are largely irrelevant to engineers working
with macroscopic electrical systems. Even circuit theory
may not be relevant to a person designing telecommunication systems that use off-the-shelf components. Perhaps the most important technical skills for
electrical engineers are reflected in university programs, which emphasize strong numerical skills,
computer literacy and the ability to understand the technical language and concepts that relate to electrical engineering.
For many engineers, technical work
accounts for only a fraction of the work they do. A lot of time may also be
spent on tasks such as discussing proposals with clients, preparing budgets and
determining project
schedules.[33]
Many senior engineers manage a team of technicians
or other engineers and for this reason project management skills are important. Most engineering projects involve
some form of documentation and strong written communication skills are therefore very important.
The workplaces
of electrical engineers are just as varied as the types of work they do.
Electrical engineers may be found in the pristine lab environment of a fabrication plant, the offices of a consulting firm
or on site at a mine. During their working life, electrical engineers may find
themselves supervising a wide range of individuals including scientists,
electricians, computer programmers and other engineers.
Subdisciplines
Electrical engineering has many
subdisciplines, the most popular of which are listed below. Although there are
electrical engineers who focus exclusively on one of these subdisciplines, many
deal with a combination of them. Sometimes certain fields, such as electronic
engineering and computer engineering, are considered separate disciplines in their own right.
Power
Main article: Power engineering
Power engineering deals with the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity
as well as the design of a range of related devices. These include transformers,
electric generators, electric motors,
high voltage engineering, and power electronics. In many regions of the world, governments maintain an
electrical network called a power grid
that connects a variety of generators together with users of their energy.
Users purchase electrical energy from the grid, avoiding the costly exercise of
having to generate their own. Power engineers may work on the design and
maintenance of the power grid as well as the power systems that connect to it.
Such systems are called on-grid power systems and may supply the grid
with additional power, draw power from the grid or do both. Power engineers may
also work on systems that do not connect to the grid, called off-grid
power systems, which in some cases are preferable to on-grid systems. The
future includes Satellite controlled power systems, with feedback in real time
to prevent power surges and prevent blackouts.
Control
Main article: Control engineering
Control engineering focuses on the modeling of a diverse range of dynamic systems
and the design of controllers that will cause these systems to behave in the desired
manner. To implement such controllers electrical engineers may use electrical circuits, digital
signal processors, microcontrollers
and PLCs (Programmable Logic Controllers). Control engineering has a wide range of applications from the flight and
propulsion systems of commercial airliners
to the cruise control present in many modern automobiles.
It also plays an important role in industrial automation.
Control engineers often utilize feedback when
designing control systems. For example, in an automobile
with cruise control the vehicle's speed is
continuously monitored and fed back to the system which adjusts the motor'spoweroutput
accordingly. Where there is regular feedback, control theory
can be used to determine how the system responds to such feedback.
Electronics
Main article: Electronic engineering
Electronic engineering involves the
design and testing of electronic circuits that use the properties of components such as resistors,
capacitors,
inductors,
diodes and transistors
to achieve a particular functionality. The tuned circuit,
which allows the user of a radio to filter out all but a single station, is just one example of such a
circuit. Another example (of a pneumatic signal conditioner) is shown in the
adjacent photograph.
Prior to the second world war, the
subject was commonly known as radio engineering and basically was
restricted to aspects of communications and radar, commercial radio
and early television. Later, in post war years, as consumer devices began to be
developed, the field grew to include modern television, audio systems, computers
and microprocessors. In the mid-to-late 1950s, the term radio engineering
gradually gave way to the name electronic engineering.
Before the invention of the integrated circuit in 1959, electronic circuits were constructed from discrete
components that could be manipulated by humans. These discrete circuits
consumed much space and power and were
limited in speed, although they are still common in some applications. By
contrast, integrated circuits packed a large number—often millions—of tiny electrical
components, mainly transistors, into a small chip around the size of a coin. This
allowed for the powerful computers
and other electronic devices we see today.
Microelectronics
Main article: Microelectronics
Microelectronics engineering deals with the design and microfabrication of very small electronic circuit components for use in an integrated circuit or sometimes for use on their own as a general electronic
component. The most common microelectronic components are semiconductortransistors,
although all main electronic components (resistors,
capacitors,
inductors)
can be created at a microscopic level. Nanoelectronicsis
the further scaling of devices down to nanometer
levels. Modern devices are already in the nanometer regime, with below
100 nm processing having been standard since about 2002.
Microelectronic components are
created by chemically fabricating wafers of semiconductors such as silicon (at
higher frequencies, compound semiconductors like gallium arsenide and indium phosphide) to obtain the
desired transport of electronic charge and control of current. The field of
microelectronics involves a significant amount of chemistry and material
science and requires the electronic engineer working in the field to have a
very good working knowledge of the effects of quantum mechanics.
Signal
processing
Main article: Signal processing
A Bayer filter
on a CCD requires signal processing to get a red, green, and blue
value at each pixel.
Signal processing deals with the analysis and manipulation of signals. Signals can be either analog, in which
case the signal varies continuously according to the information, or digital, in which
case the signal varies according to a series of discrete values representing
the information. For analog signals, signal processing may involve the amplification
and filtering of audio signals for audio equipment or the modulation
and demodulation of signals for telecommunications. For digital signals, signal processing may involve the compression, error detection
and error correction of digitally sampled signals.
Signal Processing is a very
mathematically oriented and intensive area forming the core of digital
signal processing and it is rapidly expanding with
new applications in every field of electrical engineering such as
communications, control, radar, audio engineering,
broadcast engineering, power electronics and bio-medical engineering as many
already existing analog systems are replaced with their digital counterparts. Analog
signal processing is still important in the design of
many control systems.
DSP processor ICs are found in every
type of modern electronic systems and products including, SDTV | HDTV sets,
radios and mobile communication devices, Hi-Fi audio
equipment, Dolbynoise reduction
algorithms, GSM mobile
phones, mp3
multimedia players, camcorders and digital cameras, automobile control systems,
noise cancelling headphones, digital spectrum analyzers, intelligent missile guidance, radar, GPS based cruise control systems and all kinds of image processing, video processing, audio processing and speech processing systems.
Telecommunications
Main article: Telecommunications
engineering
Satellite dishes are a crucial component in the analysis of satellite
information.
Telecommunications engineering focuses on the transmission of information
across a channel such as a coax cable,
optical fiber or free
space. Transmissions across free space
require information to be encoded in a carrier wave
to shift the information to a carrier frequency suitable for transmission, this
is known as modulation. Popular analog modulation techniques include amplitude modulation and frequency modulation. The choice of modulation affects the cost and performance
of a system and these two factors must be balanced carefully by the engineer.
Once the transmission
characteristics of a system are determined, telecommunication engineers design
the transmitters and receivers needed for such systems. These two are sometimes combined
to form a two-way communication device known as a transceiver.
A key consideration in the design of transmitters is their power consumption as this is closely related to their signal strength.
If the signal strength of a transmitter is insufficient the signal's
information will be corrupted by noise.
Instrumentation
Main article: Instrumentation
engineering
Flight instruments provide pilots the tools to control aircraft analytically.
Instrumentation
engineering deals with the design of devices to
measure physical quantities such as pressure, flow and temperature.
The design of such instrumentation requires a good understanding of physics that
often extends beyond electromagnetic theory. For example, flight instruments measure variables such as wind speed
and altitude to enable
pilots the control of aircraft analytically. Similarly, thermocouples
use the Peltier-Seebeck effect to measure the temperature difference between two points.
Often instrumentation is not used by
itself, but instead as the sensors of larger
electrical systems. For example, a thermocouple might be used to help ensure a
furnace's temperature remains constant. For this reason, instrumentation
engineering is often viewed as the counterpart of control engineering.
Computers
Main article: Computer engineering
Supercomputers are used in fields as diverse as computational biology and geographic
information systems.
Computer engineering deals with the
design of computers and computer systems.
This may involve the design of new hardware, the design of PDAs, tablets and supercomputers
or the use of computers to control an industrial plant.
Computer engineers may also work on a system's software. However,
the design of complex software systems is often the domain of software engineering, which is usually considered a separate discipline. Desktop computers represent a tiny fraction of the devices a computer
engineer might work on, as computer-like architectures are now found in a range
of devices including video game consoles and DVD players.
Related
disciplines
Mechatronics
is an engineering discipline which deals with the convergence of electrical and
mechanical
systems. Such combined systems are known as electromechanical systems and have widespread adoption. Examples include automated manufacturing systems, heating, ventilation and
air-conditioning systems and
various subsystems of aircraft and automobiles.
The term mechatronics is
typically used to refer to macroscopic
systems but futurists have predicted the emergence of very small
electromechanical devices. Already such small devices, known as Microelectromechanical
systems (MEMS), are used in automobiles to
tell airbags when to
deploy, in digital projectors to create sharper images and in inkjet printers
to create nozzles for high definition printing. In the future it is hoped the
devices will help build tiny implantable medical devices and improve optical communication.[34]
Biomedical engineering is another related discipline, concerned with the design of
medical equipment. This includes fixed equipment such as ventilators,
MRI scanners
and electrocardiograph monitors as well as mobile equipment such as cochlear implants, artificial pacemakers and artificial hearts.
See
also
- Outline of electrical engineering
- Index of electrical engineering articles
- Electrical Technologist
- Electronic design automation
- International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
- List of electrical engineers
- List of Russian electrical engineers
- Occupations in electrical/electronics engineering
- Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering
Notes
Note I
- There were around 300,000 people (as of 2006) working as electrical engineers
in the US; in Australia, there were around 17,000 (as of 2008) and in Canada,
there were around 37,000 (as of 2007), constituting about 0.2% of the labour
force in each of the three countries. Australia and Canada reported that 96%
and 88% of their electrical engineers respectively are male.[35]
References
1.
^"What is the difference between electrical and
electronic engineering?".FAQs
- Studying Electrical Engineering. Retrieved 20 March 2012.
3.
^ Vaunt
Design Group. (2005).Inventor Alessandro Volta Biography. Troy MI: The Great Idea Finder. Retrieved 21 March 2008.
4.
^
""Ohm, Georg Simon", "Faraday, Michael" and
"Maxwell, James Clerk"". Encyclopædia Britannica (11
ed.). 1911.
5.
^
Proceedings of the International Electrical Congress held in the city of Chicago,
21 to 25 August 1893. Publisher: New York, American Institute of Electrical
Engineers, 1894. May be downloaded from http://www.archive.org/details/proceedingsinte01chicgoog
6.
^Tunbridge,
Paul. Lord Kelvin: His Influence on Electrical Measurements and Units.
Publisher: The Institution of Engineering and Technology. 1991. ISBN 978-0-86341-237-0
7.
^ Weber,
Ernst; FrederikNebeker (1994). The Evolution of Electrical Engineering: A
Personal Perspective. IEEE Press. ISBN 0-7803-1066-7.
8.
^"Welcome to ECE!".Cornell University - School of Electrical and Computer
Engineering. Retrieved 29 December 2005.
11. ^ Leland
Anderson, "Nikola Tesla On His Work With Alternating Currents and Their
Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony, and Transmission of Power",
Sun Publishing Company, LC 92-60482, ISBN 0-9632652-0-2 (ed. excerpts
available online)
18. ^Raúl
Rojas, "The history of KonradZuse'seraly computing machines", p. 237;
Anthony E. Sale "The Colossus of Bletchley Park", pp. 354-355; in,
The First Computers—History and Architectures History of Computing, MIT Press, 2002, ISBN 0262681374.
Anthony E. Sale "The Colossus of Bletchley Park", pp. 354-355; in,
The First Computers—History and Architectures History of Computing, MIT Press, 2002, ISBN 0262681374.
20. ^"Electronics
Timeline". Greatest Engineering
Achievements of the Twentieth Century. Retrieved 18 January 2006.
23. ^ Various
including graduate degree requirements at
MIT, study guide at UWA, the
curriculum at Queen's
and unit tables at Aberdeen
24. ^"Why Should You Get Licensed?".National Society of Professional Engineers. Archived
from the
original on 4 June 2005. Retrieved 11 July
2005.
30. ^"Electrical and Electronics Engineers, except
Computer". Occupational Outlook Handbook.
Archived from the original
on 13 July 2005. Retrieved 16 July 2005.. (see here regarding copyright)
31. ^"Science and Engineering Indicators 2004, Appendix
2-33" (PDF). National Science Foundation.
2004.
32. ^"Electrical and Electronics Engineers, except
Computer". Occupational Outlook Handbook.
Archived from the original
on 13 July 2005. Retrieved 16 July 2005. (see Internet Archive)
33. ^
Trevelyan, James; (2005). What Do Engineers Really Do?. University of
Western Australia. (seminar with slides)
34. ^"MEMS the world!".IntelliSense Software Corporation. Archived from the original
on 17 March 2005. Retrieved 17 July 2005.
35. ^"Electrical Engineers". Bureau of
Labor Statistics. Retrieved 13 March 2009. See also:
"Work Experience of the Population in 2006". Bureau of
Labor Statistics. Retrieved 20 June 2008. and"Electrical and Electronics Engineers". Australian Careers. Retrieved 13 March 2009. and"Electrical
and Electronics Engineers".
Canadian jobs service. Retrieved 13 March 2009.
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